motivation : How Does Motivation Activate, Direct, and Sustain Action?

The chapter begins with a general overview of motivation and describes the four essential qualities of motivational states: They energize and direct behaviors, help the organism to persist toward a goal, and exist in varying strengths. Most motivational theories view behaviors as a way of maintaining equilibrium, and several aspects of this process (homeostasis, negative feedback model, set point) are explored. Pay special attention to the difference in emphasis between the more biologically based idea of instincts versus the psychologically based idea of needs. Both concepts involve the initiation of behavior; however, instincts focus more on unlearned, automatic actions, whereas needs allow more leeway for environmental influence. Hedonism, the tendency to seek pleasure and avoid pain, is a general motivational principle that extends back at least to the time of the ancient Greeks. The idea was integrated into Freudian motivational theory with the concept of the pleasure principle. Finally, the authors present several examples of how hedonism is adaptive in that it promotes survival and reproduction.

How Do Cognitive, Social, and Cultural Factors Influence Motivation?
The next section of the chapter moves further away from the idea of motivation as simple biological instincts and considers additional environmental influences that activate and sustain behavior. We are motivated by extrinsic factors such as incentives and rewards. However, we also are motivated by extrinsic factors such as incentives and rewards. However, we also are motivated by intrinsic factors such as novelty, play, and creativity. A surprising research finding in this area is Mark Lepper's contention that rewards can actually undermine intrinsically motivated behavior. Psychological scientists continue to investigate the ramifications of this for education, business, and child-rearing. Individuals are also motivated to attain personal goals, and the self-regulation of behavior is the process by which people initiate, adjust, or stop actions in this pursuit. Goals that are challenging, difficult, and specific seem to be the most productive. They also give rise to feelings of self-efficacy or the expectancy that your efforts will lead to success. Self-awareness of one's personal standards also serves to regulate behavior. The process of deindividuation occurs when self-awareness is low, and it can result in some surprising disinhibited behavior (e.g., spring break, athletic events). Finally, the self-regulatory process of delay of gratification is investigated. The understanding of this crucial, adaptive function has increased with recent advances in behavioral neuroscience.

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